Explain the Decision Making Process with Example of Your Own

EXPLAIN THE DECISION MAKING PROCESS WITH EXAMPLE OF YOUR OWN. Introduction:- Decision making is an integral part of the most of the top manager's duties. Not even a single day passes without taking decisions particularly in modern organisations. Hence, management and decision ­ making are considered as inseparable. In fact, whatever a manager does, he can do it only by taking some decision. All matters related to planning, organization, staffing, directing and controlling are engrossed in decision making process. That is why it is aptly pointed out that management is essentially a decision-making process.The survival and future success of any enterprise is directly related to the ability to take timely and appropriate decision by the executives. Thus decision-making is said to be the heart of management. Lot of planning exercise is to be initiated by the manager before taking any viable decision. The manager has to carefully plan and decide what to do or what not to do. Wrong decis ions quite often are proved to be either costly or futile. To prevent such losses, decision-making process remains to be the core are in all planned activities of the modern corporations. The selection from among alternatives of a course of action†, according to this definition, picking one course of action among alternatives available is termed as decision-making as per Koontz and Weinrich. In the words of George Terry,†decision-making is the selection of a particular course of action, based on some criteria, from two or more possible alternatives. † We can define this concept also as the process of choosing between various alternatives for achieving a specified goal. Every decision must take into consideration needs and future uncertainties.As per Herbert Simon there are three major steps in the decision making process. Decision making is about choosing from several options or ideas and taking action to generate a particular result. It is usually considered to be a rational and logical thinking process. J>Recognition and understanding of the problem. J>Various alternatives may be developed. J>careful assessment of alternatives available for taking a better decisions. Characteristics J>Decision making is a continuous process. J>The question of decision-making process must always be rational when there are alternatives.J>A decision-making process must always be rational and purposeful. J>Decision making is an intellectual process supported by good reasoning and sound judgment. J>Decision making is all pervasive in the sense that all levels of managers need to take decisions of varied nature. J>Decision-making is always related to future only. Troes of Decisions: Managerial decision may be classified into two categories, the first category includes the typical, routine and unimportant decisions and the second category covers most important, vital and strategic decisions.Apart from decisions are taken at different levels for meeting different p roblems. Oraanisational Vs Personnel Decisions:- As explained by Chester. I. Bernard, the decisions taken by the manager in his official capacity are termed as Organisational decisions. These decisions have a direct bearing on the functioning of the firm. Decision relating to reward systems or transfer of workers can be cited as examples under this category. In contrast to this, some times, decisions may be taken by the manager in his individual capacity and such decisions are termed as personal decisions.They may partly affect the personal life and partly affect the organization. Example,decision to quit the organization comes under this category. Routine Vs Strategic Decision:- Routine decisions involve little risk and uncertainty. Hence, they do not call for extraordinary judgement and thinking. They are mostly related day-to-day conduct of the business and taken repetitively. That's why they are normally taken at lower levels of management. On the other hand strategic decisions are taken by the top level management. Either they are concerned with policy matters or with long-term commitments of the organization.They require thorough understanding, analysis and best judgement, pertaining to location of the plant, type of technology and channel of distribution are the best examples of this type. Policy Vs Operating Decisions:- Policy acts as guidelines for future action. Hence,decisions pertaining to policies are usually taken by the top management. They are considered to be very important since they affect the total organization. While operating decisions are administrative in character, they help in translating policies into action.Decisions relating to a new incentive scheme may be termed as a policy decision. Decisions relating to the methodology of implementation of such incentive scheme are termed as operating decisions. Programmed Vs Non-Programmed decisions:- Programmed decisions usually deals with routine and repetitive problems. For dealing such pro blems, systematic policies, procedures and rules are established. Programmed decisions can be taken with little ease as everything goes according to some set of rules. But Non-Programmed decisions cover mainly unexpected events and challenges.In other words, each problem is unique in nature. For dealing with such special problems, executives usually refer them to the top management, tackling such situations , the manager needs expertise,intuition and creative thinking. Individual Vs Group decisions:- Decisions taken by the individual in his personal capacity are known as individual decisions. Organisations which are small in size can accommodate this type of decision-making process. When organizations grow in size and stature, complex problems do come into picture.Group decisions are considered to be the best under such situations. Group decisions represent the thinking of more than one executive. The various steps involved in the decision-making process are as explained below:- Ste p 1 – Defining the oroblem The first step is to define the real problem, money and efforts are going to be wasted if the problem is not determined correctly. That' s why, accurate diagnosis of the real problem is necessary to find out right solution. We should look at the real causes and for the remedial measures by knowing the inner details of the problem.Knowing only the outer surface of the problem and arriving at decisions may lead to fallacious conclusions. SteP 2- AnalYSing the Problem Once the problem is clearly defined, then, it must be analysed in the light of data pertaining to various factors that surmount the decision. Every situation may have some advantages and limitations. Necessary steps should be laid on locating the limitations and obstacles in achieving the desired result. Necessary care should be exercised in avoiding personalized bias in judging the certain factors. Analysis of crucial factors provides a sound basis for making effective decisions.Step 3- Developing alternatives The analysis of the problem becomes complete once it throws light on several alternative solutions. In fact, the success of decision-making process depends upon the ability of an executive in developing alternative solutions to a given problem. This requires lot of imagination, experience and judgement. Exploring the positive or negative impact of such alternatives forms as a solid base for sound decisions. Step 4- Evaluating alternative Once the alternatives are developed , the next step is to evaluate them in terms of their cause, time , impact and objectives etc.Many a time, either marginal cost or cost-benefit analysis is used to bring out the tangible benefits of each of such alternatives. Each alternative solution may have its own merits and de-merits. They should be compared with other alternatives for the purpose of appraising the real impact. As per Mr. Peter F Drucker, the important criteria for evaluating the consequences of different alternatives are risk,economy, time and limitations. Steo 5- Selecting the best possible solution Selection usually involves choice making. It is the last step in decision-making process.The manager has to select such an alternative course of action which can make the maximum contribution to the goal. It is not always possible to select the best alternative for a given problem. That is why the manger has to rely upon such course of action which can yield good results under a given set of circumstances and limitations. Step 6- Imolementing the decision Once the best alternative is selected, it must be implemented. This step mainly deals with the execution of the decision taken. It involves development of step by step plans, selling the idea to sub-ordinates and seeking co-operation from the needy people.At this stage, the decision is converted into action. The decision must be implemented in the right time and that too in a proper way. Step 7- Evaluation of Decisions The last step in decision-mak ing process is evaluation. The actual results of the decision should be compared with the expected results in order to locate the reasons for deviations. This review is a continuous process and it generates information for necessary feedback for further improving the decision-making process in future. Rationality in decision-making Rationality refers to objective and intelligent action.A decision is said to be rational if appropriate means are chosen to accomplish desired objectives. It implies that decision-maker tries to maximize the values in a given situation by choosing the most suitable course of action. A good decision depends on the makers being consciously aware of the factors that set the stage for the decision. Obtaining complete rationality is not always possible. That is the reason why people prefer to take satisfactory decisions instead of ideal or optimum decisions. Managers are not always confronted by the problem of rationality in decision-making.In practice, they c onfine themselves to few important alternatives which have limited risks combined with favourable consequences. Limits of Rational Decision making Managers are not always rational in their decision-making. They cannot always abide by the demands of rationality in decision-making process. There are some limitations to that and of which are as explained below. Since decisions are related to future, Managers cannot foresee all the consequences accurately. Moreover, lack of complete knowledge about the problem also makes it impossible to choose a good decision.Due to time and cost constraints, all complex variables that have a bearing on decision cannot be examined fully. Hence, the decision maker is forced to strike a balance between complete rationality and hard realities on the ground. The impact of all the variables cannot be ascertained because some of them are intangible. The consequences of various alternatives cannot be anticipated accurately. Hence, decisions taken under uncert ainty cannot guarantee the success of decision-making process. The Human factors like value systems, perceptions, social factors, institution etc. are the main limits on rational decision-making. Managers, being human beings, are greatly influenced by their personal beliefs, attitudes and biases. Because of this, the capacity of a decision-making process varies from individual to individual and from situation to situation. Every manger is vitally concerned with the above limitations in his approach to rational decision-making. He has to collect all the relevant information and try to overcome the above limits on rationality and choose the most rational decision for solving any given problem. Ba†iers of Effective Decision MakingApart from the above limitations, decision-making process remains to be ineffective because of the existence of various barriers in organization structure. These barriers impede the process of identification of problems. It's analysis and the development of the solutions. The following are the important barriers that can block managerial effectiveness in choosing the most suitable decision as per Elbing. The tendency of a human-being to evaluate a given problem with pre-conceived notions, act as a stumbling block in understanding the real situation.Though it's dangerous, managers feel safer if they do not change what is familiar. Eventually, the ineffective decision of a familiar way becomes accepted rather than considering new and innovative means. Many managers fail to demarcate the symptoms from the main problem. Many mangers have a tendency to respond to the problem instantaneously without proper infonmation and thinking. If they gather more infonnation, they become rather than what is unique in new problem. The above problems are mainly responsible for either indecision or for half decision in the modern organizations.Knowledge of the above problems will surely help the managers in arriving at pragmatic decisions. The followin g suggestions can be offered to overcome the above barriers so as to make the managers more effective in decision-making process. Avoid premature evaluation. Initiate impartial probing by avoiding personal biases on the outcome. Develop a sound system that can supply adequate information for making decisions. Encourage group leaders to respond to a given situation and compare the pros and cons of the solutions offered by the two groups for making an effective decision.Encourage innovative thinking among the sub-ordinates so as to identify the crux of the problem without waste of time and money. When decisions of critical and pivotal in nature are to be taken, encourage group thinking. For this, the problem is to be presented to the sub-ordinates first and they are asked to develop as many solutions as possible in a free environment. Techniques of Decision -making Brainstorming:- Brainstorming is the oldest and widely followed technique for encouraging creative thinking. It was origi nally developed by A. F. Osbom. It involves the use of a group.This is an approach to improve problem discovery and solving by encouraging sub-ordinates to give their ideas and solutions in a free environment, they will generate creative ideas. Continuous interaction through free discussions may result in spontaneous and creative thinking. The larger the number of solutions , the fairer are the chances in locating an acceptable solution. The research proves that on hour brainstorming system is likely to generate 50 – 150 ideas. It is interesting to note that while most of them are proved to be impracticable, at least, some of them merit serious consideration.This group process is not without limitations. It continues lot of time and therefore,is an expensive exercise. Secondly,it emphasises only quantity of solutions which more often than not proved to be superficial. By overcoming the above limitations, a modern manager can use this an an effective tool. Some of the claimed advantages of the brainstorming technique include:-  » It reduces dependence on a single authority figure.  » It encourages the open sharing of ideas.  » It stimulates participation among group members. It provides individual safety in a competitive group.  » It maximizes output for a short period of time.  » It ensure a non evaluative climate.  » It tends to be enjoyable and stimulating. Synetics- When compared to Brainstorming, synectics is a new concept developed by William J. J. Gorden. The terms ‘Synectics' is derived from a Greek word which refers to â€Å"Fitting together of diverse elements†. It starts on the premise that this concept encourages novel thinking for the development of alternatives through putting together different ideas which are distinct from each other.A given problem is presented to a group of people with different backgrounds and varied experience. It is the responsibility of the group leader to present the problem and lead the di scussions in order to stimulate creative solutions. This approach ensures on the spot evaluation of members suggestions. The leader who is a technical expert is always assisting the group in evaluating the feasibility of their ideas. But experience shows that synectics has been less widely used than â€Å"Brainstorming†. When the problem is real tough and challenging, this approach is used for effective decision-making.Like Brainstorming it also suffers from the same range of limitations. The synectic techniwue includes the following steps:- Problem statement and background information stage:- The group leader describes the general area of discussion but avoids identifying the specific problem . Creative thinking on the problem is encouraged. The leader presents background information on the problem and the goals associated with the idea solutions. Good wishing stage:- Group members are encouraged to wish for anything that comes to mind that could address the problem.As in br ainstorming, in this â€Å"freewheeling stage† people are encouraged to generate wild ideas and to hitchhike. Exploring ideas and not evaluating them are of utmost importance at this stages. Excursion stage:- Paricipants are asked to forget about the specific problem. They are asked to generate ideas about a somewhat unrelated are that eventually might be related to the problem at hand. Forced-fit stage. Participants take ideas from the excursion stage and force them to fit the initial problem. Although this often appears quite unusual and obtuse, it is intended to encourage creativity.In fact,evidence suggests that many great thinkers develop ideas from such experimental thinking. Intemized response stage:- The group picks one of the ideas generated during the forced fit stage and pursues it further. The idea is dissected on only its positive aspects are identified. After all the positive aspects have been explored,the idea's limitations are addressed. This focus on the posi tive is intended to encourage productivity and creativity. The outcome of the synectic process is a single unique plan or decision that has undergone considerable evaluation.The process tends to produce innovative ideas. Synectic approach can be quite useful for creative planning and decision making. Its cost is high. Furthermore, it produces only one potential solution to a problem. If that solution turns out to be unusable,the problem remains, and the process has failed. The Nominal Group: The nominal group consists of people knowledgeable on the issue to be decided who are in the same physical location and who are aware of each other but who do not directly interact while they are working together.The specific techniques for using the nominal group in decision-making vary with the situation, but usually the following steps are involved. l> The manger brings the group together and outlines the problem. l>Each member of the group generates a number of ideas in writing. l>Each membe r then presents a single idea at a time to the entire group. The ideas are written on a blackboard or on large pieces of paper, and discussion of them is limited to clarification. When no further ideas merge, or when the manager feels the process has gone far enough, each member votes on the ideas, again in writing.The final decision is summed outcome of the individual votes, but the manager is free to accept or reject it. Ooerations Research:- The Origin and development of operations research is attributed to military operations and applications in 2†³Ã¢â‚¬  world war. The war put tremendous pressure on the use of available scarce resources for various strategic and tactical operations. The success of operations research in developing options of effective and efficient nature was instrumental in making this approach rather dependable in decision making process.Now-a-days, greater emphasis has been laid on the use of mathematical models to reflect different options and constra ints in a situation and their effect on a selected goal. This quantitative approach to decision-making is usually referred as â€Å"Operations Research†. Of late, it has become an invaluable tool in the kit of a decision-maker. Operations Research employs optimizing models like Linear Programming, Project Management,Inventory Control, Decision Theory and Waiting Line Theory.Operations Research is the systematic method of studying the basic structure, functions and relationships of an organization as an open system. It always adopts a systems approach to management in getting things done. It is constantly interested in developing optimal solution with limited resources in a given situation. It covers six steps in its approach to problem solving. They are: a. Identification of a problem. b. Construction of a mathematical model to investigate the problem. c. Developing a good solution. d. Testing of the model in the light, the data available. e.Identifying and setting up of cont rol points. f. Implementation of the option as a solution to a critical problem, putting a solution to work. In essence, Operations Research attempts to develop the best solution that will contribute to organizational goals. Limitations of Operation Research:- Operations Research technique is not †¢ panacea to all the problems of modern management. In other words, it is not the end. Since Operations Research does not take intangible aspects into consideration, subjective judgement becomes difficult under this model.As the Operations Research technique directly depends upon the use of mathematical and statistical tools,it is increasingly becoming complex and costly exercise. Since decision making is a human process,It cannot be predicted properly. At the same time, the impact of such factors cannot be measurable. Delphi Technique:- It is a technique normally used for forecasting future events. It is a group decision making technique. Under this method, independent opinions are s ought from the members repeatedly so as to develop a best solution to a given problem.The success of Delphi technique depends upon a simple technique of understanding the problem from the other man's perspective. This ensures success. Though it is a useful technique, since it involves time and cost,it can not be tried in all situations. At the operations level hundreds of de(isions are made in order to achieve local outcomes that contribute to the achievement of a company's overall strategic goal. However, all these decisions are interrelated and must be coordinated for the purpose of attaining the overall company goals. Many decisions-making situations occur under conditions of uncertainty.For example, the demand for a product may not be 100 units next week but may vary between 0 and 200 units, depending on the state of the market, which is uncertain. Decision analysis is a set of quantitative decision-making techniques to aid the decision maker in dealing with a decision situation in which there is uncertainty. However, the usefulness of decision analysis for decision making is also a beneficial topic to study because it reflects a structured, systematic approach to decision making that many decision makers follow intuitively without ever consciously thinking about it.Decision analysis represents not only a collection of decision-making techniques but also an analysis of logic underlying decision making. The general process of the Delphi technique follows: A panel of people who are knowledgeable about a particular problem is selected. The members of the group never actually meet. The panel can have members both inside and outside the organization, and the individual members may or may not know who the other members are. A questionnaire about the problem to be solved is sent to each members of the panel. Each person is asked to make anonymous suggestions.These suggestions are pooled, and a feedback report is developed. The feedback report and a more advanced, second stage questionnaire are sent back to the panel members. Each panel member independently evaluates the feedback report, votes on the priority of the ideas contained in it, and generates new ideas based on it. The process is repeated until a consensus is reached or until the manager feels that sufficient information has been received to make a decision. A final summary feedback report is developed and set back to the group members. A major advantage of the Delphi approach is its anonymity.In groups that interact face-to-face, one person may dominate, or everyone may watch the manager for clues to what is wanted. Further is interacting groups and individual may take a stand and not want to back down for fear of losing face. Frequently experts are more concerned with defending their position than with reaching a good decision. Electronic meetings: The most recent approach to group decision making blends the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer technology. It's cal led the electronic meeting. The major advantages of electronic meetings are anonymity, honestly and speed.Participants can anonymously type any message they want and it flashes on the screen for all to see at the push of a participant's board key. It also allows people to be brutally honest without penalty. And it's fast because chitchat is eliminated, discussions don't digress and many participants can â€Å"talk† at once without stepping on one another's toes. Experts claim that electronic meetings are as much as fifty five percent faster than traditional face to face meetings. Phelps Dodge Mining for instance, used the approach to cut its annual planning meeting from several days down to twelve hours.Yet there are drawbacks to this technique. Those who can type fast can outshine those who are verbally eloquent but lousy typists, those with the best ideas don't get credit for them, and the process lacks the information richness of face to face-to-face oral communication. Bu t although this technology is currently in its infancy, the future of group decision making is very likely to include extensive use of electronic meetings. Decision making without probabilities:- A decision making situation includes several components, the decision themselves and events that may occur in the future, known as states of nature.Future states of nature may be high or low demand for a product or good or bad economic conditions. At the time a decision is made, the decision maker is uncertain which state of nature will occur in the future and has no control over these states of nature. When the probabilities can be assigned to the occurrence of states of nature in the future, the situation is referred to as â€Å"decision making under risk†. When probabilities cannot be assigned to the occurrence of future events, the situation is called â€Å"decision making under uncertainty†.Each decision will result in an outcome or payoff, for each state of nature that w ill occur in the future. Payoffs are typically expressed in terms of profit, revenues, or cost. For example, if decision 1 is to expand a production facility and state of nature a is good economic conditions, payoff la could b e $100,000 in profit. Once the decision situation has been organized into a payoff table, several criteria are available to reflect how the decision maker arrives at a decision, including maximax, maximin, minimax regret, Hurwicz, and equal likelyhood.These criteria reflect different degrees of decision-maker conservatism or liberalism. On occasion they result in the same decision; however, they often yield different results. Different decision criteria often result in a mix of decisions. The criteria used and the resulting decisions depend on the decision maker. For example, the extremely optimistic decision maker might disregard the preceding results and make the decision to maintain the status quo, because the maximax criterion reflects his or her personal decision-making philosophy.

How to Write Effective Letters to Congress

How to Write Effective Letters to Congress People who think members of the U.S. Congress pay little or no attention to constituent mail are just plain wrong. Concise, well thought out personal letters are one of the most effective ways Americans have of influencing the lawmakers they elect.   Members of Congress get hundreds of letters and emails every day, so you will want your letter stand out. Whether you choose to use the U.S. Postal Service or email, here are some tips that will help you write a letter to Congress that has an impact. Think Locally Its usually best to send letters to the representative from your local congressional district or the senators from your state. Your vote helps elect them- or not- and that fact alone carries a lot of weight. It also helps personalize your letter. Sending the same cookie-cutter message to every member of Congress may grab attention but rarely much consideration. Its also a good idea to think about the effectiveness of all of your communication options. For instance, a face-to-face meeting at an event, town hall, or the representatives local office can often leave the biggest impression. That is not always an option though. Your next best bet for expressing your opinion is a formal letter, then a phone call to their office. While email is convenient and quick, it may not have the same influence as the other, more traditional, routes. Finding Your Legislators Address There are a few ways that you can find the addresses of all of your representatives in Congress. The U.S. Senate is easy because each state has two Senators. Senate.gov has an easy to navigate directory of all current Senators. You will find links to their website, their email and phone number, as well as the address to their office in Washington D.C. The House of Representatives is a little trickier because you need to search for the person representing your particular district within the state. The easiest way to do so is to type in your zip code under Find Your Representative at House.gov. This will narrow down your options but you may need to refine it based on your physical address because zip codes and Congressional districts do not coincide. In both houses of Congress, the representatives official website will also have all the contact information you need. This includes the locations of their local offices. Keep Your Letter Simple Your letter will be more effective if you address a single topic or issue rather than a variety of issues you may feel passionate about. Typed, one-page letters are best. Many Political Action Committees (PACs)  recommend a three-paragraph letter structured like this: Say why you are writing and who you are. List your credentials and state that you are a constituent. It also doesnt hurt to mention if you voted for or donated to them. If you want a response, you must include your name and address, even when using email.Provide more detail. Be factual and not emotional. Provide specific rather than general information about how the topic affects you and others. If a certain bill is involved, cite the correct title or number whenever possible.Close by requesting the action you want to be taken. It might be a vote for or against a bill, a change in general policy, or some other action, but be specific. The best letters are courteous, to the point, and include specific supporting examples. Identifying Legislation Members of Congress have a lot of items on their agendas, so its best to be as specific as possible regarding your issue. When writing about a particular bill or piece of legislation, include the official number so they know exactly what youre referring to (it also helps your credibility). If you need help in finding the number of a bill, use the  Thomas Legislative Information System. Cite these  legislation  identifiers: House Bills:  H.R._____House Resolutions:  H.RES._____House Joint Resolutions:  H.J.RES._____Senate Bills:  S._____Senate Resolutions:  S.RES._____Senate Joint Resolutions:  S.J.RES._____ Addressing Members of Congress There is also a formal way to address members of Congress. Use these headers to begin your letter, filling in the appropriate name and addresses for your Congressperson. Also, its best to include the header in an email message. To Your Senator: The Honorable (full name)(room #) (name) Senate Office BuildingUnited States SenateWashington, DC 20510Dear Senator (last name): To Your Representative: The Honorable (full name)(room #) (name) House Office BuildingUnited States House of RepresentativesWashington, DC 20515Dear Representative (last name): Contact the U.S. Supreme Court The Justices of the U.S. Supreme Court do not have email addresses, but they do read letters from citizens. You can mail letters using the address found on the SupremeCourt.gov website. Key Things to Remember Here are some key things you should always and never do when writing to your elected representatives. Be courteous and respectful without gushing.Clearly and simply state the purpose of your letter. If its about a certain bill, identify it correctly.  Say who you are. Anonymous letters go nowhere. Even in email, include your correct name, address, phone number and email address. If you dont include at least your name and address, you will not get a response.State any professional credentials or personal experience you may have, especially those pertaining to the subject of your letter.Keep your letter short- one page is best.Use specific examples or evidence to support your position.State what it is you want to be done or recommend a course of action.Thank the member for taking the time to read your letter. What Not to Do Just because they represent the voters does not mean that members of Congress are subject to abuse or belittlement. As impassioned as you may be about an issue, your letter will be more effective if its written from a calm, logical perspective. If youre angry about something, write your letter then edit the next day to ensure youre conveying a courteous, professional tone. Also, make sure to avoid these pitfalls. Do not use vulgarity, profanity, or threats. The first two are just plain rude and the third one can get you a visit from the Secret Service. Simply stated, dont let your passion get in the way of making your point. Do not fail to include your name and address, even in email letters. Many representatives prioritize comments from their constituents and a letter in the mail may be the only way you receive a response. Do not demand a response. You may not get one no matter what and a demand is simply another rude gesture that does little for your case. Do not use boilerplate text. Many grassroots organizations will send out a prepared text to people interested in their issue, but try not to simply copy and paste this into your letter. Use it as a guide to help you make the point and write the letter in your own words with your personal perspective. Getting thousands of letters that say the exact same thing can diminish the impact.

Gender Dynamics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Gender Dynamics - Essay Example The difference of sex and gender implies a great deal today as social reforms have transformed the world since the rule of the masculine species to a more restrained co-existing living with the feminine species. Just to draw a clear line between the two, sex refers to the biological characteristics distinguishing male and female. Sexual definition of the male and female species is characterized by their differences in the physical aspects such as chromosomes, anatomy, hormones, reproductive systems, and other physiological components. On the other hand, gender refers to the social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males and females through particular social contexts. Therefore, sex makes people male or female while gender makes people masculine or feminine. Sex is an attributed status because a person is born with it, but gender is an acquired status because it is a learned behavior through a person’s interaction with society and culture (Lindsey 4). Citing the dif ference between sex and gender did not totally entail gender equality and societal restructuring but has largely contributed especially in behalf of the female species and all the feminists who work for the value of women in the society such as equality in all terms with men which have moved many people all over the world, not just females but as well as feminists males who believe in justice between both genders. From all the years that gender roles issues have gone through, modern day gender dynamics is an outcome of years of reforms and challenges in bringing gender equality in all aspects of the society. Despite all these changes, a question in mind still possess a degree of doubt of whether if the world has totally evolved into a society of equal co-existence and gender dynamics. Within the chapter are some readings that fall under this category. One of the readings, authored by Phyllis Chesler, talks about how gender dynamics are still biased in the modern society where everyb ody seems to be enjoying freedom and feminism seem to fail on this concept. Within the essay Chesler (231) defined the victors and pitfalls of feminism that lead to the modern day gender dynamics. According to Chesler (229), today is the time when woman can and must make a difference. Truly the world presently has well known feminine leaders, professionals, scientists, researchers, etc. that contributes as much if not more than the male counterpart. Feminism had ended gender biased injustices such as violence against women, rape, many forms of oppression and neglect directed to women and has paved way for equality in education, healthcare and workforce (Chesler 230). Today the world has more literate, productive and empowering women contributing to better outcome in economy, education and healthcare which is far from the traditional woman of the dark past who were stripped off the rights to power, to education, to freedom of choice and the right to property just assuming a secondary caring role behind the strength of a man (Chesler 230). Despite the remarkable changes gender roles leaped over the years still women are encouraged not to rest among these victories. Chesler (231) notes that gender inequality still exists in other parts of the world and the contemporary thinking has led feminism into passivity. The modern feminists are focused on sexual rights and issues of women that the movement for more significant changes for societal benefit lies behind. Today, though women can go for a man’s work same wage level is not assured. The society should be penetrated with equal gender dynamics to provide equality in all a

Marketing Fundamentals Fall 2012 Midterm Exam Essay - 1

Marketing Fundamentals Fall 2012 Midterm Exam - Essay Example Studies show that it has 50% less fats than Zinger burger of KFC and Subway. It was introduced with different styles to the customer like Mega-MAC, Big-Big-MAC and Maharaja-MAC (India) etc. McDonalds is a dominant company that consumers have trusted in and have the power to change as tastes changes.   Mc Donald’s Offers Valued pricing as its products are much cheaper price as compared to its competitor’s i.e. KFC, Burger King, Subway etc. McDonald’s is viewed generally as a fast food restaurant with low price that they offer. They have â€Å"value meals† for being inexpensive in price provided the amount of the servings and drinks. McDonalds communicates a psychosomatic value to consumers. Competition is tough that’s they have done a great job differentiating from other challenging brands letting them position McDonalds as a Pioneer in fast food Industry. It uses bundling strategy as well by serving combo packs to raise market share in arrangement with competitive pricing. Publicity, branding, promotion, packaging and Advertising are key significant regarding to the marketing tools which are used to create products and services more attractive which causes to increase sales and profits. The Happy Meals are also a fine product strategy that targets kids by providing French fries and chicken nuggets with small toys. They have also â€Å"Play zone† where kids are welcome to place and hang out with other kids with under the supervision of their parents. Toyota Co. Ltd. was established in 1937. In the 1960s and 70s the company stretched speedily, exporting large records of cars to markets. It has assembly plants and distributors in many countries, now it owns subsidiaries that manufacture cars and parts, steel, trucks, synthetic resins, and equipments for numerous industries. Honda and Toyota are prime competitors in the automobile

Sustainability analysis of urban agriculture in Beijing, China Research Paper

Sustainability analysis of urban agriculture in Beijing, China - Research Paper Example The agricultural sector is the main stage for producing food worldwide. Historically, agricultural production has managed to satisfy the food demands from a rapidly increasing population. However, the scenario at present is totally reversed. There is an apparent decrease of food supply leaving over 1 billion people hungry. Jiang stated that the International Fund for Agriculture Development projected that the food supply will need to increase by 60% to sustain mankind . The dilemma on food production can be tightly connected with the increasing rate of urbanization. The rapid growth of the world economy and exponential increase in the world population may be considered as some of the reasons for the increasing urban areas. Associated with this change is a large shift of human activities towards the urban areas with significant effects on the agricultural sector. In 2008, the rural population has been exceeded by the urban population for the first time. The world’s urban popula tion as projected by the United Nations will continue to grow by more than a billion people between 2010 and 2025, while the rural population which is viewed to be the agricultural producers, will hardly grow at all. The insignificant growth in rural areas can suggest that the proportion of the global population may not suffice the demands of increasing population not producing food (Satterthwaite et. al. 2809). One way to increase the food availability especially on cities is through urban agriculture as an alternative for conventional agricultural food production in rural areas. This method of food production can be done both in urban and peri-urban areas where it is expected to be integrated into the economic and ecological system (RUAF Foundation par. 1). One of the countries that have enormous population in urban areas is China. According to China’s National Bureau of Statistics 2009, the number of urban residents in China had already reached 622 million - a population w ell over twice the size of the entire U.S. but still just 47% of China’s total (Kwan par.1). Around the many very large and fast-growing cities in China, Beijing is one of the cities wherein intensification of agricultural production is taking place at an accelerated pace (Wolf et. al. 142). In this regard, it is reported that the country will push forward urbanization in an active and stable manner, focusing on gradually transferring farmers qualified for urban household permits into cities (â€Å"China expects urbanization rate to be at 51.5% by 2015† par. 2). This opens the opportunity for China to adopt urban agriculture. In fact, Beijing has an increased adoption peri-urban agriculture since 1950’s. The technology proved to sustain some non-staple foods such as milk and vegetables and improved the quality of food available as opposed to quantity in the city (Jianming 40). Despite of the good news that urban agriculture brought to the food supply chain, one must also examine its sustainability. As part of the world’s intensification of agriculture to increase productivity, maximum concern must be placed for the long-term environmental and economic sustainability (Gilis par. 3). It has been defined by Gold (par. 4) of United States Department of Agriculture that sustainability in agriculture involves the long-term integrated system of plant and animal production that will â€Å"satisfy human needs, enhance environmental quality and natural resources based on agricultural economy, efficiently use of nonrenewable resources and on-site resources, sustain economic viability and enhance the quality of life of farmers and society as a whole.† This paper aims to analyze the existing urban agriculture and its contribution to the development of the region. The impact of practicing agriculture in urban areas of Beijing, China will be assessed based on the economic, social and environmental aspects as its sustainability

Summery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Summery - Essay Example An ethical decision, according to this model, requires ethical awareness, ethical judgment, ethical intention, and ethical behaviour. The Multidimensional Ethics Scale is then used by the authors to evaluate the level of justice and ethical decision making power in the accounting students. For the purpose of this study, the authors use samples of accounting students from 2 different countries, the US and Taiwan. The study aims to examine how culture affects the ethical decision making power of accounting students specifically. The four dimension model used with MES revealed that US students were more motivated to use egoism for decision making in the given 3 scenarios. On the other hand Taiwanese students used deontology dimension. The relativism is often ignored by the US students, whereas, Taiwanese students gave it more consideration in one of the scenarios presented. The individualism is a leading concept in the US culture. Hence, it can be related to the egoism that is apparent in the judgements of the US students. Taiwanese place more emphasis on uncertainty avoidance for rules and contracts; hence, deontology in the Taiwanese ethical judgements is expected as per their cultural practices. Hence, the study achieves its aim of concluding that there, indeed, is a relationship between ethical judgments and cultural

Glossary of Medical Terms and Definitions

Glossary of Medical Terms and Definitions Glossary of Terms A Adhesions-  adhesions are bands of tissue that form between the abdominal organs. Normally, the surface of abdominal organs is smooth and glistening. This enables the abdominal organs to slide or glide over each other with ease. Adhesions cause the abdominal organs to stick together. Most often, the adhesions are asymptomatic and cause no trouble to a person. The most common cause of abdominal adhesions is surgery. Factors that promote adhesion formation post surgery include physical handling of the abdominal organs, contact of the organs with foreign objects such as gauze and blood clots that were not be completely cleaned out. Adhesions secondary to surgery may cause disease many years later. Adhesions can also be due to inflammation in the abdominal cavity. Inflammation can be due to appendicitis or peritonitis. Radiation treatment has also been shown to contribute to adhesion formation. Adhesions if symptomatic often present with chronic abdominal pain. In the abdomen, they can result in intestinal obstruction; in the pelvis they cause infertility. Artificial sweeteners-  sugar substitutes are food additives that duplicate the effect of sugar in food. They can be of natural or synthetic nature. Artificial sweeteners are sugar substitutes that are synthetic. Other types of sugar substitutes are sugar alcohols, novel sweeteners and natural sweeteners. Sugar substitutes have gained popularity in the recent past because they deliver the same sweetness but with less calorie consumption. Sugar substitutes are not without health benefits. Artificial sweeteners are tooth friendly and reduce risk of developing dental caries. In diabetic patients, they contribute to better sugar control. They are not carbohydrates and therefore do not raise the blood sugar level after consumption. Virtually, they deliver no calories to the body and are a healthier alternative to patients who want to lose weight or assist individuals from piling on weight. Several artificial sweeteners have been approved for use by the FDA and include stevia, saccharine and sucralose. However, the consumption of artificial sweetener has to be within the limits of acceptable daily intake (ADI) to ensure that the health of an individual is not compromised. B Baroreceptor Think of the baroreceptors in your body as the pressure gage system. A baroreceptor is a sensory nerve ending that resides in the major arteries of the human body. These sense changes in blood pressure and thus these nerve endings play an important role in assisting the circulatory system. Baroreceptors may be found in larger arteries of the body and may be located in the aorta and the carotid artery for example. Thus these receptors send alerts to the brain about blood pressure changes so that the brain may then create a response to the changes. It works like this. As blood pressure rises the vessel walls expand. As the walls expand this triggers more rapid firing off of these receptors. If blood pressure lowers then the receptors lower the firing rate or signaling rate to a less than normal firings. The brain knows what â€Å"normal† should be and thus can respond based upon the signals given by the receptors. Baroreceptors don’t simply note change. They note the amount of change and the timing of that change. By studying the reactions of a body’s receptors a medical professional can evaluate and diagnose some serious problems and thereby understand what kinds of treatment may be needed. Bile duct-  bile or gall is a fluid that is synthesized in the liver. It is a complex fluid that is composed of bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids and bilirubin. Bilirubin is an end product of hemoglobin degradation. Bile is green in color and is essential in the digestion of fats in the small intestines. Bile is transported through a complex network of tubes known as the billiary tree from the liver to the gall bladder for storage. Many bile ducts make up the billiary tree. These are tubular structures with thin walls that act as transport passages for delivery of bile to the gall bladder through the hepatic duct. Sometimes bile ducts can become obstructed by bile stones. This results in severe right upper abdominal pain and abdominal discomfort which worsens with intake of fatty meals. The billiary ducts can be visualized through specialized medical imaging which employs use or radio isotopes to light up the billiary tree. Biologic mesh-  a mesh is a sheet made of interconnected strands of a given material. In medicine, meshes are a crucial component of hernia repair. They are either synthetic or biologic in nature. Biologic meshes are derived from the human or porcine dermis. Once inserted, a biologic mesh induces the proliferation of fibroblasts and endothelial cells into the mesh substance. This is achieved through action of residual growth hormone in the substance of the mesh. This process results in degradation and rebuilding of the collagen scaffold of the mesh with the end result being complete incorporation of the mesh in the body. Recently, there has been a shift from the use of synthetic to biologic meshes due to better outcome associated with the later. Synthetic meshes have been associated with higher incidence of complications such as infections, skin erosion and formation of fistulas. Biologic meshes have shown promising outcome especially in repair of hernias that have contaminated wou nds. C Computer network-  a computer network refers to a group of computers that are connected to each other electronically. Information can be shared between the linked computers through data connections. This is achieved through use of cables or wireless technology. Information technology has a key role in expansion and delivery of quality healthcare. In hospitals, two types of networks re found. The first is the local area network (LAN) which connects members of a given office or department. This facilitates formation of a departmental database that enables ease in communication and efficiency in execution of its mandates. The second type is the wide area network (WAN) which connects all the hospital departments to a central computer programme that is concerned with patient management. This ensures easy accessibility to patient records from various departments such as laboratory results, radiology examinations and consultation notes. The benefits of computer networking in a hospital ar e immense. It allows for easy access to a patients history and medical records for the multidisciplinary team that is involved in the treatment of the patient. One of its major downfalls is the safety of patient’s records in that an unauthorized person can hack past security measures and access a patient’s personal information. Coping strategies-  coping is a deliberate effort made by an individual to solve personal and interpersonal problems. Coping is a reaction to what is affecting an individual in the environment. It is a survival technique in which a person aims to master or tolerate stressors in the environment. The ability to cope varies with individuals. A number of factors contribute to the ability of a person to cope. The type of stressor, the person and the environment are key determinants. Coping can be successful or it can fail. When coping fails, the outcome is maladaptive behavior. There are numerous coping mechanisms. Broadly they can be divided into three. Appraisal focused coping mechanism is when an individual challenges himself or herself by facing ones assumptions. In problem focused approach, coping is aimed at reducing or eliminating the stressor. In the emotion focused approach, an individual aims at changing their own emotional response to various stressors. D Diaphragm The main muscle in the respiration process is the diaphragm, located between the thoracic cavity and the abdomen. Damage to this muscle can cause severe breathing difficulties. Usually the contracting and then again relaxing of this muscle is involuntary, however, a person can control it at times. A muscle that separates the pelvic cavity from the perineal cavity is also referred to as a diaphragm. It supports the pelvic and restrains abdominal pressure so that said pressure does not cause pelvic issues. A man made version of this can be surgically installed in order to prevent pregnancy and some sexually transmitted diseases. To aid in diagnostics a physician can use a disc type object known as a diaphragm with the standard microscope. This objet acts to filter light rays in order to help create a more easily visible image. This disc can also be added to a camera lense for the capturing of a more useful image. One popular such type is the Iris Diaphragm. Database-  database refers to a collection of information or data that is arranged in such a way such that a computer software programme can effectively select required piece(s) of data to fulfill a given requirement. The organization of the data ensures easy retrieval. Database management systems are softwares that act as the go between the user and the database itself to help capture and analyze any data. Databases are a form of electronic filing system and organization of data is achieved through use of tables. In medical field, various kinds of databases exist. Medical research databases offer easy access to information including recent clinical trials, drug information updates and emerging evidence in various medical fields. Symptoms databases will enable a layman to have an idea of what disease(s) they could be ailing from. This however does not validate self treatment and there is still need to see a healthcare provider. Databases are also essential in analysis of medical re search data because it is easier to retrieve all records that match a certain criteria, update records in bulk and cross reference data from various tables. Dyspnea   In medical language shortness of breath is known as dyspnea. At onset it is important to know a few details. Was this onset gradual or rapid? Was onset at a time of rest or exercise? Does the patient have a medical condition already that could explain this new symptom? Dyspnea is a symptom and it is important to find the root cause so that proper treatment can be given. Some activity related causes of dyspnea may include asthma, congestive obstructive pulmonary disease, heart related diseases or even anxiety. Inhalers hay be useful for the pulmonology related disorders. Medications may often be given for the other heart related or anxiety related conditions. Dyspnea related to being at rest may also occur. Like the active type, this too has many different causes. Some examples of causes might include allergy, anxiety, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, angina, chronic fatigue syndrome and many more. While some of these may be difficult to diagnose, it is best to find the cause of dyspnea and treat the cause rather than to just treat a symptom and not deal with the overall problem. E Eating awareness-  awareness is the state or ability to perceive, feel, or to be conscious of events, objects or sensory patterns. Eating awareness is more or less refers to mindful eating. This is the accepting and dedicating special attention to an individual’s thoughts, feelings and behaviors as pertains to eating. Mindful eating tends to gear away from a dietary approach in terms of losing weight. In dieting, restrictions are put on amount and type of foods that are allowed. Most people however are not able to adhere to the strict diet guidelines. This results in indulgence of the prohibited foods. This places a person on an oscillating motion from dieting to indulgence interspersed with feelings of guilt and shame. Mindful eating is not a diet. It is giving food and eating one full’s attention which allows one to attain optimal enjoyment and without eating in excess. It makes it possible for one to experience the difference between physical satisfaction and fulln ess. Electronic medical record-  this is chart containing all of a patient’s information and medical history stored in digital form. It is patient’s information on past medical treatment from an individual practice office. It offers numerous advantages over paper records. It allows for storage of more information, it makes a patient’s information accessible to more than one person and enhances ease of understanding information by bypassing the hurdle of illegible handwriting. A clinician is also able to effectively tract a patient’s progress over time. It is also easier to follow up patients on some procedures such as vaccinations and screenings. It also enables patients to participate in their own care because this information can be made available to them. Overall, electronic medical records improve the quality of patient care in a practice. This should not be confused with an electronic health record. In the later, the patient’s information is more comprehensive and can be shared with clinicians in other practices. Exercise   The act of using a part of the human in order to improve upon it may be referred to as exercise. Exercise may be either physical or mental. Exercise has the purpose of maintaining or building up whatever is being actively used. Mental exercise can be done in order to strengthen or improve mental abilities. A few examples of mental exercises would include puzzles, games, quizzes, discussion groups and active conversation on a given topic. The more a person exercises the mind the stronger that person’s mental abilities may become. Physical exercise maintains or builds up the physical body. Regular exercise can improve endurance, strength, balance and flexibility. Aerobic exercise can build endurance over time quite well. Weight lifting is an example of a strength building exercise. Balance related exercises can help prevent accidental falling, especially for older adults. Yoga is one example of flexibility exercise. Also one can use relaxation exercises to help relax the body before sleep or to help in the relief of stress. Regular exercise, either mental or physical, has many benefits. If a person wants to remain healthy and strong then a regular and challenging exercise program is in order. Physical exercise can also help with weightloss, improve heart health, release tension and much more. Exercise improves the life of a person and that is a good thing. F Fat-  in chemistry, the term fat is used to describe a group of compounds that dissolve in organic solvents. Fats can exist in solid or liquid at room temperature. All fats are derived from fatty acids and glycerol. Fat in the body is referred t o as adipose tissue. The human body gets fat from the diet or from synthesis within the body. Dietary fat can be sourced from plant or animal fats. Animal products that contain fat include meats and milk products. Plant fats can be found in nuts, sunflower, and soya beans among others. In the body, excess calories are converted to fat. Broadly, fats can be categorized into unsaturated, saturated and Trans fats. Structurally, saturated fats do not have a double bond between any of its constituent’s carbon atoms. Most saturated fats are of animal origin and are unhealthy. Unsaturated fats have a double bond between the carbon atoms and are considered healthier. Trans fat which are unhealthy arise from the partial hydrogenation of fats during food processing and are found in processed foods. In the body, fats are useful for insulation, for production of steroid hormones and absorption of fat soluble vitamins among other functions. G Gland A group of cells whose purpose is to secrete substances in order to make the body run more efficiently is known as a gland. Human anatomy has two types of these, the exocrine and the endocrine glands. These help to remove materials from the body and also to provide needed materials for certain processes requiring substances that otherwise would not be present in these areas. The exocrine glands secrete substances outside of the body. Examples would be the salivary glands or sweat glands. Salivary glands secrete fluid inside the mouth. Sweat glands secrete their substance through the skin in places such as the underarms, neck, forehead and other skin areas. While the salivary glands help with digestion, the sweat glands act as the body’s cooling system. Both are quite important. Endocrine glands secrete their substances inside of the body. These too are quite important. The glands in this group include the pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, thymus, adrenals, pancreas and gonads. Each of these serves a special purpose and a deficiency in any of these areas will greatly impact quality of life. The physician who treats such problems is known as an endocrinologist. I Incarcerated hernia-  a hernia is defined as a protrusion of abdominal contents through an area of weakening in the abdominal wall. A hernia can be reducible or irreducible. A reducible hernia is that which the contents of the herniation can be manually pushed back through the abdominal wall into the abdomen. An irreducible hernia is one in which it is not possible to reduce the contents of the hernia manually. In this case, the hernia contents become trapped in the hernia sac. An incarcerated hernia is irreducible. Femoral hernias, indirect inguinal hernias and abdominal wall hernias are likely to become incarcerated. Though the hernia is irreducible, the blood supply to the trapped abdominal contents is not compromised. However, there is a high risk of this occurring. Symptoms include a painful swelling that may have recently enlarged nausea and vomiting, fever and abdominal distention. Surgery is the only treatment option for incarcerated hernias. A potential complication of thi s hernia is strangulation which will result in death of trapped hernia contents due to lack of blood supply. Internal hernia-  a hernia refers to the protrusion of an abdominal organ through an area of weakness in the abdominal wall. An internal hernia refers to protrusion of a visceral organ through the peritoneum, foramen or mesentry with the organ remaining within the abdominal cavity. In internal hernias, a swelling on the abdominal wall associated with external hernias is absent. Examples of internal hernias include diaphragmatic hernia, hiatal hernia, sigmoid mesocolon hernia, Winslow hernia, tranmesentric hernia among others. Internal hernias are common after gastric bypass surgery. Due to lack of physical signs associated with an external hernia, the diagnosis of an internal hernia is often difficult to make. The symptoms are due to the local effect that a hernia causes. For instance a hiatal hernia will present with gastroesopageal reflex disease. A spinal hernia may present with limb weakness, paresthesia urinary and stool incontinence. Treatment of internal hernias is surgical. M Machine learning   Machine learning is a type of artificial intelligence that is geared towards technological advancement of humans through use of computers. Machine learning equips computers with the ability to learn without them being programmed. Computer programmes are designed in such a way that they teach themselves to grow and react differently when exposed to new data. This advancement in computing is achieved through continuous exposure to new scenarios, tests and information. The computer is then able pick a pattern or detects a trend from the given data. Through this, the computers then learn how to perform tasks by generalizing from previous examples. In other words the computer is able to solve a problem using prior experience or examples from past data. In modern medicine, medical imaging is an indispensible tool. Machine learning is essential in the medical imaging field through applications that assist in medical image analysis, image fusion, image guided therapy and computer aided diagnosis. Machine learning can also be used to predict response of different patients to treatment through analysis of data. Metabolic equivalent   It is also known as the metabolic equivalent of task (MET). This is a unit of measurement that is used to determine the energy requirement of a given task. 1 metabolic equivalent is defined as the amount of oxygen that is consumed while sitting and at rest. This translates to about 3.5 mls of oxygen per kilogram of body weight. The MET values of any given physical activity can be determined by dividing the oxygen cost of the activity by 3.5. The intensity of the activity is directly proportional to the MET value. MET values for various activities provide a simple and practical way that helps determine the energy expenditure of various activities. In medicine, MET values are useful in that they can be used to determine how much exercise or physical activity an individual can tolerate safely. The patient is then able to establish a repertoire of activities that they can partake in safely. Metabolic surgery   This is a term that has recently gained popularity in the field of bariatric surgery. Obesity is associated with adverse effect on many of the body’s metabolic processes. Of concern is glucose metabolism. Obesity increases the risk for type 2 diabetes and most obese people have concurrent type 2 diabetes. Metabolic surgery is a term that refers to a set of gastrointestinal operations used with intent to treat diabetes and metabolic dysfunction including obesity. Simply put, these are surgical procedures that primarily aim at correcting dysfunction in glucose metabolism. An example of such a procedure is the RY gastric bypass. It is not clear how bariatric surgical procedures produce remission in type 2 diabetes. Theories existing include that introduction of food directly to the lower intestine via bypass stimulates release of GLP-1 whish results in secretion of insulin. It is also hypothesized that rearranging the gut results in decrease of hunger stimul ating hormones such as peptide YY which result in decreased intake of sugar hence better glucose control. O Operation   An operation is a medical procedure involving incision, with instruments. It is performed for repair of damaged tissue for instance after trauma. It is also done to arrest the progress of any pathology. The term surgery and operation can be used synonymously. A surgeon is a trained medical specialist who performs the surgery. An operation can be elective or an emergency. An elective operation is scheduled and performed for conditions that do not pose an immediate threat to the patient. An emergence operation is performed immediately because of presence of a life threatening condition in a patient. Based on the degree of invasion, an operation can be minimally, moderately or extensively invasive. An operation is a sterile procedure that is performed in a sterile environment. It entails use of a multidisciplinary team. There is the surgeon, the anesthetist, the scrub nurse among others. During the procedure, the patient is given medication that makes them sleep. Most oper ations will involve a hospital stay of at least a few days and a recovery period of at least two weeks. R Revisional surgery   Increase in the incidence of obesity in the world birthed bariatric surgery. This is a division of surgery that provides procedures geared towards helping patients lose weight. Revisional surgery refers to an operation that is done in patients who have already undergone a previous form of bariatric surgery. It is usually performed in the setting of complications or if the post surgery weight loss in not tallying with the expected. Complications that can prompt revisional surgery include development of fistulas, ulcers, continuous vomiting and protein energy malnutrition. Reversal of a procedure can also be done if a patient loses too much weight. Options for revision are dependent on the primary procedure that was done, some limit revision options. Recent surgical techniques offer more revision options compared to older techniques. Revisional surgeries are associated with greater risk for adverse outcome in the patient. Risk is highest in people who have lost t oo much weight and lowest in those who had minimal weight loss after the primary procedure. S Scar   Nature marks an area that has not properly healed with what is called a scar, a mark or reminder of what happened. Such a mark may be on the skin, inside the body or it can be mental or emotional. Such a marking indicates a healing issue. Scars on the skin come in different types. A normal scar may start out red and fade in time as the injury burns. A keloid scar results when there is extra collagen, resulting in a scar that continues to grow. This growth continues even after the wound has healed. The hypertrophic scar raises above the skin and is red. This type may last for up to five years. An atrophic scar, also known as a pitted scar or an ice pick scar, results from skin conditions such as acne. Finally with a burn the result may be a scar contracture where the skin shrinks up around the area of injury. The above mentioned are physical manifestations due to injury. Serious life events may also leave emotional or mental scars that show up as behavior or mood issues due to the lack of healing. These too can fade over time. Sheath   An envelope or casing that covers is known as a sheath. The human body has many of these. Also medicine has created some in order to make procedures easier. One example of such a tool would be a catheter sheath that is used to help make putting in a catheter easier. In the human body there are other examples of a sheath. The male penis retracts into a sheath. A nerve may be protected by a myelin sheath. A tendon is protected by a tissue sheath. The purpose of a sheath is to protect and to help in holding together whatever is inside the sheath or case. It is composed of tissue that surrounds the object being protected. Medical tools that protect and are called sheaths may be made of many different substances. One obvious example of a sheath is a rubber that a man wears to protect his partner from receiving the sperm at ejaculation. Such a sheath protects a woman from getting pregnant. Shunt   A device surgically implanted in order to drain excess cerebrospinal fluid from the brain is known as a shunt. These may be either the fixed pressure type or the programmable variety. If the needs of the patient change then the fixed pressure type will require a new surgery. The programmable type can have the pressure setting changed while in the physician’s office. A typical shunt has four parts. First fluid begins to be transferred out via a catheter or pouch in the brain. It is then collected in a reservoir that has been connected to the catheter. A valve then controls the pressure build up, allowing excess cerebrospinal fluid to then be taken away via the lower catheter, which then sends the fluid elsewhere in the body to be absorbed. Shunts are identified based on where they have been placed and where they drain into. Thus a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt, for example, has been placed in the ventricular part of the brain and will be drained into the stomach. A patient should carry medical identification so that if an emergency does happen the authorities will know about the shunt. Sinus   A cavity or space where something can flow through is known as a sinus. The human body contains several areas that this term can be applied to. Most people know about the nasal cavity, known as your sinuses, but the body also has other places where it has similar cavities. This term  sinus  applies to cavities in the heart, neck, anis, cervix and more. These spaces can become homes for infections at times. Allergens can inflame a sinus cavity. Such inflammations may be treated with antihistamines to relieve symptoms. Most frequently this term â€Å"sinus  is used in referring to the sinuses in the skull. Four pairs of sinus passages exist in the human skull. Air fills these, however, they may be blocked by excess mucous. Such an infection may be referred to as sinusitis. Symptoms may include headache, congestion, watery eyes and even mild fever. Antibiotics and decongestants may be given to treat sinusitis. Stapler   In medicine this is a surgical tool used to close wounds. The kind of stapler used depends upon the kind of staples required by the procedure. These instruments differ depending upon what is being done. They may be placed externally or internally. Medical staplers may even be purchased by anyone online at places like Amazon. The use of the stapler makes closing the wound easier for the surgeon. Also such technology provides for a faster recovery time for the patient. A stapler may also come with a removing tool to be used when the patient returns for his or her check up. Disolvable staples are also available, thus making removal not necessary. The stapler provides quality temporary wound closure, allowing for ease of care and ease of removal. Staplers come in many sizes and shapes, designed according to purpose and wound size. Staplers are an intrinsic part of any surgeon’s tools. Strangulated hernia   A hernia refers to protrusion of abdominal contents through an area of weakness in the abdominal wall. Anatomically, a hernia is composed of the hernia sac, the hernia contents and the neck of the hernia. A hernia becomes strangulated when its blood supply is cut off and the trapped components become ischemic. A femoral hernia has the highest likelihood of becoming strangulated. This is because it has a narrow neck. After the blood supply is cut off, death of trapped tissue occurs as early as within 6 hours. Strangulated hernia has a high risk of perforation due to impaired integrity of the intestinal wall. A patient experiences severe abdominal pain of sudden onset. The pain is first located at the site of the hernia then it becomes generalized over the whole abdomen. This may be accompanied by abdominal distention, nausea and vomiting. A strangulated hernia is a medical emergency. Surgery is the mainstay of treatment. The dead portion of the intestine is cut off and the two healthy ends are then anastomosed. The hernia is also repaired to avoid recurrence. Surgical obstruction   Intestinal obstruction exists when there is failure, reversal or impairment of the normal transit of the intestinal contents. It can be partial or complete. The obstruction can be within the hollow tubular structure of the gut. An example is in when swallows a foreign body, in the presence of massive number of intestinal worms or human hair. The defect can also be due to dysfunction in muscular activity of the intestinal wall and peristalsis is impaired. The defect can also be outside the gut wall which is usually due to a mass pressing on the gut such as a tumor or due to adhesions. Intestinal obstruction presents with severe abdominal pain, cramping, bloating and swelling of the abdomen, constipation and inability to pass flatus. Intestinal obstruction is a medical emergency and if untreated can be fatal. Surgical intervention is the only modality of treatment. Intraoperatively, the obstruction is relieved and any intestinal tissue